Partition of India: The Journey to the Creation of Pakistan

1. The War of Independence (1857)

The struggle for freedom in the Indian subcontinent did not begin in 1947; it traces back to the 1857 War of Independence, often referred to as India’s First War of Independence. This rebellion marked the first significant uprising against the British East India Company’s rule. Prior to 1857, India was dominated by the British, although remnants of the Mughal Empire still existed, confined largely to symbolic power in Delhi. The revolt was a culmination of widespread discontent among Hindus, Muslims, and other communities who faced economic exploitation, cultural suppression, and political marginalization.

One major spark for the rebellion was the introduction of new rifle cartridges allegedly greased with cow and pig fat. Hindus regard cows as sacred, and Muslims consider pigs impure. Since soldiers had to bite the cartridges before use, this act offended both communities, igniting anger. Alongside this, British policies like the Doctrine of Lapse, which allowed the annexation of territories of rulers without male heirs, fueled resentment. Local rulers like the Rani of Jhansi, and leaders in Bengal and Punjab felt directly threatened.

The revolt began in Meerut, spearheaded by Mangal Pandey, and spread across northern and central India. However, it ultimately failed due to lack of coordination and leadership. Though Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor, was declared the symbolic leader, he lacked military or financial power. Diverse regional leaders acted independently, and there was no unified strategy.

After suppressing the rebellion, the British dissolved the East India Company, placing India under the British Crown, marking the start of the British Raj. The post of Viceroy was established, centralizing authority. The British recognized the danger of Hindu-Muslim unity and therefore initiated the Divide and Rule policy, promoting communal divisions, encouraging conflicts like the Urdu-Hindi debate, and revising historical narratives to favor Hindu claims while portraying Muslims as foreign invaders.

2. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Muslim Awakening

In the post-1857 environment of political suppression and communal tension, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan emerged as a visionary reformer. He understood that Muslims were lagging behind in education and modern knowledge compared to Hindus. Sir Syed formulated the Two-Nation Theory, emphasizing that Hindus and Muslims were separate nations with distinct religions, cultures, and lifestyles, making unified political representation difficult.

He cautioned Muslims against early involvement in politics, particularly in the Indian National Congress (founded 1885), which he feared would soon be dominated by Hindu interests. Instead, Sir Syed encouraged Muslims to pursue education, learn English, adopt modern scientific knowledge, and maintain friendly ties with the British to ensure social and economic progress.

3. Indian National Congress and Hindu-Muslim Relations

The Indian National Congress, established in 1885, initially aimed to represent all Indians in political dialogue with the British. However, it gradually became a platform dominated by Hindu interests. Muslims, heeding Sir Syed’s advice, largely stayed away, leading to early alienation.

The early 20th century witnessed growing Muslim political consciousness. The Partition of Bengal (1905) created hope for Muslims, as it strengthened their position in East Bengal. Hindu opposition led to its annulment in 1911, disappointing Muslim aspirations.

4. Simla Deputation and Formation of Muslim League (1906)

On October 1, 1906, prominent Muslim leaders met Viceroy Lord Minto at Simla, requesting separate electorates and safeguards for Muslims. Recognizing the need for organized representation, the All-India Muslim League was officially founded in December 1906 in Dhaka under leaders like Nawab Salimullah Khan and Aga Khan. This marked a major step toward a distinct Muslim political identity in India.

5. Minto-Morley Reforms (1909)

The Minto-Morley Reforms introduced separate electorates for Muslims, providing legal recognition to Muslims as a distinct political entity. While limited in scope, this acknowledgment was pivotal, setting the stage for future political negotiation and advocacy for Muslim rights.

6. Lucknow Pact (1916)

The Lucknow Pact represented a temporary unity between Congress and the Muslim League. Both parties agreed on separate electorates and joint representation in legislative councils. The pact demonstrated that, under strong leadership like Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Hindu-Muslim collaboration was possible, though short-lived due to diverging political agendas in later years.

7. Delhi Proposals (1927) and Nehru Report (1928)

Muslim leaders presented the Delhi Proposals in 1927, advocating constitutional safeguards, separate electorates, and protection of religious freedoms. However, the Nehru Report (1928), drafted by Motilal Nehru, rejected separate electorates and largely ignored Muslim concerns. This deepened Muslim mistrust toward Congress, highlighting the necessity of a distinct political platform.

8. Jinnah’s Fourteen Points (1929)

In response, Quaid-e-Azam Jinnah presented the Fourteen Points, emphasizing constitutional safeguards for Muslims, including:

• Separate electorates
• Protection of minority rights
• Religious freedom
• Cultural and educational autonomy

These points became the foundation of Muslim political demands in India, ensuring that the Muslim League remained the primary representative body for Muslims.

9. Allahabad Address by Allama Iqbal (1930)

The intellectual climax of Muslim political thought was Allama Iqbal’s Allahabad Address in 1930. Iqbal declared that Muslims were a separate nation and envisioned a homeland in northwest India. He emphasized that Islam was a complete code of life, guiding both spiritual and political existence. His address inspired Muslims to imagine a sovereign state where their religion, culture, and political rights could be fully realized.

10. Chaudhry Rahmat Ali and “Now or Never” (1933)

In 1933, Chaudhry Rahmat Ali coined the term Pakistan in his pamphlet Now or Never, proposing a separate homeland for Muslims. Though initially considered visionary, this idea gradually gained political traction over the next decade, particularly among the leaders of the Muslim League.

11. Lahore / Pakistan Resolution (1940)

The Lahore Resolution of 1940, passed at Minto Park (now Iqbal Park), formally declared that Muslims were a distinct nation entitled to sovereign statehood. This resolution became the rallying point of the Pakistan Movement and consolidated the demand for a separate homeland.

12. 1945–46 General Elections and Cabinet Mission Plan

The 1945–46 elections showcased the Muslim League’s overwhelming popularity, winning nearly all Muslim seats in India. The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) aimed to maintain a united India under a federal structure, but Congress’s refusal to honor it led to Muslim League withdrawal and growing distrust.

13. Direct Action Day (16 August 1946)

In response to broken negotiations, Quaid-e-Azam Jinnah called for Direct Action Day, demonstrating that Muslims were ready to assert their political demands outside constitutional methods if necessary. The day led to communal riots, highlighting that a united India was no longer feasible.

14. Partition and Radcliffe Boundary Commission (1947)

By June 1947, the British concluded that partition was inevitable. The Radcliffe Boundary Commission, led by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, hastily drew borders, splitting Punjab and Bengal. The division caused one of the largest forced migrations in history, with millions uprooted and nearly a million killed.

15. Creation of Pakistan (14 August 1947)

On 14 August 1947, Pakistan emerged as an independent state, with Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah as the first Governor-General. Despite challenges, including territorial divisions and administrative issues, Pakistan fulfilled the vision laid out by Allama Iqbal, Chaudhry Rahmat Ali, and the leaders of the Muslim League.

16. Conclusion

The journey from 1857 to 1947 was marked by struggle, sacrifice, and visionary leadership. Key events, including the formation of the Muslim League, Lucknow Pact, Allahabad Address, Fourteen Points, and Lahore Resolution, paved the way for Pakistan’s creation. Though partition brought immense human tragedy, it realized the long-cherished dream of an independent homeland for the Muslims of the subcontinent.

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